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Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Dogs and Cats – Vet360

By Stell Cell Research

Any tumour growing within (dermal), on (epidermal) or even under the skin (subdermal) should be considered a skin tumour. Some skin tumours are benign (i.e., slow-growing, completely curable with complete resection and dont spread) while others are malignant (faster growing, invasive, sometimes incurable, and may spread to other organs). In order to classify what type of tumour you are dealing with, you will need to make a fine needle aspirate or take a biopsy A biopsy can either be incisional or excisional. Whichever course is taken, a microscopic diagnosis must always, always be obtained.

No two tumours of the same kind look the same, but very different cancers can appear similar When tumours are inflamed or infected, the underlying pathology can be masked. This information is very important. If its a cytological or incisional, this information can help guide you as the best approach to cure not only the obvious lump but also manage the precancerous lesions that surround the obvious tumour. Not all skin tumours are best removed surgically! Only very small (1 2 cm on the body or neck, and <1 cm elsewhere) should be removed by excision.

Many clients and vets try to economise by removing small lumps instead of taking the extra step this can drastically alter prognosis, by spreading tumour cells.

Although theoretically any tumour can occur in the skin, we classically think of just a few types when we say skin cancer squamous cell carcinomas (SCC), melanomas, haemangiosarcomas (HSA) and mast cell tumours (MCT).

Actinic Keratosis

Actinic keratosis (AK), also known as solar keratosis or senile keratosis, is a very common lesion occurring in susceptible humans as a result of prolonged and repeated solar exposures. The action of ultraviolet radiant energy, principally UVB, results in damage to the keratinocytes and produces single or multiple, discrete, dry, rough, adherent scaly lesions. These premalignant lesions may, in time, progress to squamous cell carcinomas.

This is very important as a warning sign and should be the first thing you teach clients about. A couple of veterinary-specific manifestations of AK are the comedones or blackheads seen on cats noses (fig 1) and dogs ventra. These lesions can be managed with protection, (fig 2) imiquimod or Photodynamic Therapy (PDT). More on these modalities later.

Squamous Cell Carcinomas

Squamous Cell Carcinomas are the classical skin tumours, caused primarily by long-term to exposure to UV-B radiation. The animals most afflicted white or part-white cats and dogs. Bull Terriers, Staffies, Pit Bulls, Bulldogs and Jack Russells are amongst the dog breeds most often affected. These ex-British breeds enjoy our long, glorious South African summer sun, and tan day after day.

UV-B radiation damages DNA and this damage is cumulative and only partially repairable or reversible. Squamous cell carcinomas can look like nothing more than non-healing crusts, pimples or scabs, or they can form large, raised, ulcerating plaques.

PROGNOSIS

It is important to treat according to the stage presented:

Primary Tumour:

T0 = no tumour

T in situ = Pre-invasive carcinoma (scale, crust)

T1 = tumour <2cm diameter, superficial or exophytic

T2 = tumour 2 5 cm diameter, OR with minimal invasion irrespective of size

T3 = tumour > 5cm diameter, or with invasion of subcutis irrespective of size

T4 = invading fascial, muscle, bone or cartilage, regardless of size

Regional lymph nodes:

N0 = no involvement

N1 = lymphnodeinvolvement

Distant metastasis:

M0 = no metastasis

M1 = evidence of metastasis

Ulceration of the primary tumour is associated with a biologically more aggressive lesion and a poorer prognosis. It is not known why ulcerated primaries have a more aggressive biologic nature. It is not likely due to underestimation of the thickness due to the ulcer crater. Ulcerated lesions tend to be thicker and have a nodular growth pattern, but the increased thickness does not account for the poorer prognosis. However, the depth or width of surface ulceration has been significantly correlated with survival. Other histologic prognosticators include the mitotic indices, whirling and the presence or absence of lymphatic or blood vessel invasion are relevant to prognosis.

Tumours in situ look like nothing more than scaly, scabby skin and offer another earlier warning sign, the best opportunity for cure, and are a wake up call. My preference for this is to use immunotherapy with imiquimod cream, or photodynamic therapy for T in situ and T1 tumours.

T2 tumours which are large but NON invasive (T2 large) also respond well to PDT or radiotherapy, but those that are T2 invasive require surgery or aggressive PDT (only to 5mm depth maximum). Once it gets to T2 invasive or T3+, cure rates using any technique drop to below 40% (from >85%) so teach your pet owners about skin cancer and early aggressive intervention from the first vaccination!

T3 and T1-4N/(any) M0/1 must be referred to a specialist for management. I see huge disasters when GPs approach these with surgery. Dogs are disfigured and then referred when they could have kept penises, mobility or faces with a proper approach from the beginning. An integrated approach using multiple modalities and an understanding of tissue tolerances, treatment sequencing and proper patient surveillance are beyond the scope of general practice. Managing such a patient is often possible, but is an 8 20 week process.

More extensive tumours may require additional surgery, chemotherapy or radiation to achieve good results. Their main importance is that they recur because skin of the ventral abdomen, ears or nose have been damaged. (fig 3) Cutting out squamous cell carcinomas can be like the little Dutch boy plugging the hole in the dyke with a finger another often just pops up elsewhere.

Recurrent SCC may require specialist attention to get under control or cure. In any event, thoracic radiographs should be performed. SCC of the feet (pedal SCC) is far more aggressive and spreads to the lungs earlier than other SCC of the skin, so always attend to any non-healing wound or lump of >1 weeks duration by having it checked using histopathology.

Treatment

Figure 1. White cat with nasal SCC this is the earliest stage the presence of discharge and slight scaling around the nose and eyelids. If treated appropriately at this stage, the prognosis for cure is close to 100%

Figure 2. UV suit UV-resistant suits (obtained from Dr Georgina Crewe), protect the healthy or precancerous skin and are an essential part of post-treatment management

Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) (fig 4) is a technique using the application or injection of photosensitising agents in different concentrations. They accumulate in certain tumours and when subjected to high-fluence (200-300 W/cm2) light of a specific frequency, keyed to the particular molecule being used, the molecules aggregate into unstable complexes that then restabilise by release of various oxygen radicals which cause lipid membrane, protein and DNA damage. Over-treatment causes regional vasoconstriction and side effects, without increase in toxicity; undertreatment achieves little, but aggravates the inflammation. This treatment is effective only in lesions <5mm thick. Treatment is once a monthly, for 1 3 treatments, depending on severity and extent. Pre-cancerous actinic keratosis can also be successfully managed using this technique.

Immunotherapy using Imiquimod (Aldara; 3M), animidazoquinolinamine, is an immune system modulator and possesses both potent antiviral and antitumor activity in animal models and humans. Current theories suggest that imiquimod acts both directly by inducing apoptosis and by inducing secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Imiquimod activates macrophages and other cells via binding to cell surface receptors, such as Toll receptor 7, and thereby induces secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interferon-a (IFN-a), tumour necrosis factor-a (TNF-a), and interleukin-12 (IL- 12). These cytokines bias towards a Th1-dominant immune response, which in general is associated with inflammation and tissue injury through activated inflammatory leukocytes and with cytolytic activity through CD8+-lymphocytes (Abbas et al 1996). Imiquimod can also induce apoptosis directly in a Bcl- 2-family-dependent manner by downregulating anti-apoptotic genes such as hurpin and HAX-1.

Treatment is applied to lesions Monday to Friday, once daily, for 6 12 weeks; inflammation caused by the treatment can occasionally be severe and require NSAIDs.

I reserve this for small/early/superficial lesions in cats due to the cost of the cream. Clients must wear gloves to protect themselves. Efficacy is reported as about 75%, with a median survival time of 1189 days, although recurrent lesions do seem to respond to the therapy.

5-Fluorouracil use in animals: this drug is rapidly and fatally neurotoxic in cats even as eye drops. In dogs, the tolerance is also very low and if licked it can trigger fatal mucosal sloughing. Dont use in veterinary practice.

CRYOTHERAPY is outdated, painful, disfiguring and has a lower success rate than other therapies mentioned. Do not use this. Poor technique is a major reason for treatment failure; it requires training and experience and is potentially hazardous to the operator.

RADIATION THERAPY: the use of a linear accelerator to deliver high-voltage (4 20 MeV) electrons or photons for the treatment of surface tumours is called teletherapy. This technique has the potential for extreme harm if improperly performed, and all such cases are specialist cases and must be referred to a person with the relevant training. Theres a reason its an entire field of speciality in itself in the US and Europe. It requires a knowledge of radiation physics, radiation biology and management of radiation side effects that cannot be gleaned from a few lectures.

The role of surgery in managing skin tumours.

Surgery is an important part of management of these conditions. For some tumours e.g. BCC, HA/HSA, MCT, a properly-performed excision can be curative. In others, e.g. SCC, the surrounding skin is often also on an anaplastic march that is unstoppable by surgery alone. Surgery then helps debulk larger masses that would not respond as well to wider-field but lower-intensity therapies e.g. imiquimod, PDT, RT. The timing and planning is critical. Discuss this with a specialist BEFORE radiation or PDT PLEASE! Post-surgical fibrosis decreases the efficacy of other modalities! (fig 5)

Figure 3. SCC ear pinna removal This is the degree of surgery required for more advanced SCC of the pinna, and is to be avoided if possible, by appropriate education of the client at first vaccination of the kitten. This sort of cat may be allowed out at night, but not during the daytime.

Figure 4. PDT Patient undergoing photodynamic therapy at Inanda Vets. Basal Cell Carcinomas

Basal cell tumours are a benign tumour that look very similar to SCC, and are quite common in cats in other parts of the world. In dogs, they typically occur around the head and are not unlike canine cutaneous histiocytoma (hence the need for a tissue diagnosis). They are usually single, raised, ulcerated button-like tumours. Surgery alone is normally curative. They can be diagnosed by cytology or histopathology. BCC and SCC are classed together as the Keratinocytic Skin Cancers.

Figure 5. Multiple raised SCC on the ventrum of a dog; the previous surgeries have contributed to scar tissue formation, which makes radiation less effective, and future surgeries more difficult. The widespread nature of the disease means a novel approach must be taken if control is to be achieved. Patients arriving at this stage are major challenges to cure.

References

BERGMAN, P. J. 2007. Anticancer vaccines. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract, 37, 1111-9; vi-ii.

BROCKLEY, L. K., COOPER, M. A. & BENNETT, P. F. 2013. Malignant melanoma in 63 dogs (2001-2011): the effect of carboplatin chemotherapy on survival. N Z Vet J, 61, 25-31.

DANK, G., RASSNICK, K. M., SOKOLOVSKY, Y., GARRETT, L. D., POST, G. S., KITCHELL, B. E., SELLON, R. K., KLEITER, M., NORTHRUP, N. & SEGEV, G. 2012. Use of adjuvant carboplatin for treatment of dogs with oral malignant melanoma following surgical excision. Vet Comp Oncol, 9999.

EMANUEL, E. J. & JOFFE, S. 2003. Ethics in Oncology. In: HOLLAND, M. & FREI, E. (eds.) Cancer Medicine 6. 6th ed.: Lippincott.

GILL, V. L., BERGMAN, P. J., BAER, K. E., CRAFT, D. & LEUNG, C. 2008. Use of imiquimod 5% cream (Aldara) in cats with multicentric squamous cell carcinoma in situ: 12 cases (2002-2005). Vet Comp Oncol, 6, 55-64.

GROSENBAUGH, D. A., LEARD, A. T., BERGMAN, P. J., KLEIN, M. K., MELEO, K., SUSANECK, S., HESS., P. R., JANKOWSKI, M. H., KURZMAN, I. & WOLCHOK, J. D. 2011. Safety and efficacy of a xenogeneic DNA vaccine encoding for human tyrosinase as adjunctive treatment for oral malignant melanoma in dogs following surgical excision of the primary tumor. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 72, 1631-1638.

KILLICK, D. R., STELL, A. J. & CATCHPOLE, B. 2015. Immunotherapy for canine canceris it time to go back to the future? J Small Anim Pract, 56, 229-41.

MARTIN, P. D. & ARGYLE, D. J. 2013. Advances in the management of skin cancer. Veterinary Dermatology, 24, 173-e38.

MCLEAN, J. L. & LOBETTI, R. G. 2015. Use of the melanoma vaccine in 38 dogs: The South African experience. J S Afr Vet Assoc, 86, 1246.

OTTNOD, J. M., SMEDLEY, R. C., WALSHAW, R., HAUPTMAN, J. G., KIUPEL, M. & OBRADOVICH, J. E. 2013. A retrospective analysis of the efficacy of Oncept vaccine for the adjunct treatment of canine oral malignant melanoma. Vet Comp Oncol, 11, 219-29.

PETERS-KENNEDY, J., SCOTT, D. W. & MILLER, W. H., JR. 2008. Apparent clinical resolution of pinnal actinic keratoses and squamous cell carcinoma in a cat using topical imiquimod 5% cream. J Feline Med Surg, 10, 593-9.

Photos: Courtesey Inanda Vet (Dr Anthony Zambeli)

Excerpt from:
Squamous Cell Carcinoma in Dogs and Cats - Vet360

Induced pluripotent stem cells don’t increase genetic …

By Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

Called induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), this technique opens the doors to medical advances, including generating cartilage cell tissue to repair knees, retinal cells to improve the vision of those with age-related macular degeneration and other eye diseases, and cardiac cells to restore damaged heart tissues.

Despite its immense promise, adoption of iPSCs in biomedical research and medicine has been slowed by concerns that these cells are prone to increased numbers of genetic mutations.

A new study by scientists at the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), part of the National Institutes of Health, suggests that iPSCs do not develop more mutations than cells that are duplicated by subcloning. Subcloning is a technique where single cells are cultured individually and then grown into a cell line. The technique is similar to the iPSC except the subcloned cells are not treated with the reprogramming factors which were thought to cause mutations. The researchers published their findings on February 6, 2017, in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

"This technology will eventually change how doctors treat diseases. These findings suggest that the question of safety shouldn't impede research using iPSC," said Pu Paul Liu, M.D., Ph.D., co-author, senior investigator in NHGRI's Translational and Functional Genomics Branch and deputy scientific director for the Division of Intramural Research.

Dr. Liu and his collaborators examined two sets of donated cells: one set from a healthy person and the second set from a person with a blood disease called familial platelet disorder. Using skin cells from the same donor, they created genetically identical copies of the cells using both the iPSC and the subcloning techniques. They then sequenced the DNA of the skin cells as well as the iPSCs and the subcloned cells and determined that mutations occurred at the same rate in cells that were reprogrammed and in cells that were subcloned.

Most genetic variants detected in the iPSCs and subclones were rare genetic variants inherited from the parent skin cells. This finding suggests that most mutations in iPSCs are not generated during the reprogramming or iPSC production phase and provides evidence that iPSCs are stable and safe to use for both basic and clinical research, Dr. Liu said.

"Based on this data, we plan to start using iPSCs to gain a deeper understanding of how diseases start and progress," said Erika Mijin Kwon, Ph.D., co-author and NHGRI post-doctoral research fellow. "We eventually hope to develop new therapies to treat patients with leukemia using their own iPSCs. We encourage other researchers to embrace the use of iPSCs."

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Private clinics peddling of unproven stem cell treatments …

By Stem Cell Clinics

Stem cell science is an area of medical research that continues to offer great promise. But as this weeks paper in Science Translational Medicine highlights, a growing number of clinics around the globe, including in Australia, are exploiting regulatory gaps to sell so-called stem cell treatments without evidence that what they offer is effective or even safe.

Such unregulated direct-to-consumer advertising typically of cells obtained using liposuction-like methods not only places the health of individuals at risk, but could also undermine the legitimate development of stem cell-based therapies.

Many academic societies and professional medical organisations have raised concerns about these futile and often expensive cell therapies. Despite this, national regulators have typically been slow or ineffective in curtailing them.

As well as tighter regulations here, international regulators such as the World Health Organisation and the International Council on Harmonisation need to move on ensuring patients desperate for cures arent sold treatments with limited efficacy and unknown safety.

Hundreds of stem cell clinics post online claims that they have been able to treat patients suffering from a wide range of conditions. These include osteoarthritis, pain, spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, diabetes and infertility. The websites are high on rhetoric of science often using various accreditation, awards and other tokens to imply legitimacy but low on proof that they work.

Rather than producing independently verified results, these clinics rely on patient testimonials or unsubstantiated claims of improvement. In so doing these shonky clinics understate the risks to patient health associated with these unproven stem cell-based interventions.

Properly administered informed consent is often overlooked or ignored, so patients can be misled about the likelihood of success. In addition to heavy financial burdens imposed on patients and their families, there is often an opportunity cost because the time wasted in receiving futile stem cells diverts patients away from proven medicines.

The many recent reports of adverse outcomes demonstrate the risks of receiving unproven cell therapies are not trivial. In the USA three women were blinded following experimental stem cell treatment for macular degeneration (a degenerative eye disease that can cause blindness). One man was rendered a quadriplegic following a stem cell intervention for stroke. And a woman whose family sought treatment for her dementia died in Australia.

Other notorious cases involving the deaths of patients include the German government shutting down the X-Cell Centre and the Italian government closing the Stamina Foundation it had previously supported.

At present, the only recognised stem cell treatments are those utilising blood stem cells isolated from bone marrow, peripheral blood (the cellular components of blood such as red and white blood cells and platelets) or umbilical cord blood.

Hundreds of thousand of lives have been saved over the last half-century in patients with cancers such as leukaemia, lymphoma and multiple myeloma, as well as rare inherited immune and metabolic disorders.

A few types of cancer and autoimmune diseases may also benefit from blood stem cells in the context of chemotherapy. Different stem cells are also successfully used for corneal and skin grafting.

All other applications remain in the preclinical research phase or are just starting to be evaluated in clinical trials.

Further reading: Yes theres hope, but treating spinal injuries with stem cells is not a reality yet

Often dismissed by for-profit clinics as red tape hampering progress, the rigour of clinical trials allows for the collection of impartial evidence. Such information is usually required before a new drug or medical device is released into the marketplace. Unfortunately, in the case of for-profit stem cell clinics, their marketing has gazumped the scientific evidence.

Action is required on many fronts. Regulators at both an international and national level need to tackle regulatory loopholes and challenge unfounded marketing claims of businesses selling unproven stem cell interventions.

Researchers need to more clearly communicate their findings and the necessary next steps to responsibly take their science from the laboratory to the clinic. And they should acknowledge that this will take time.

Patients and their loved ones must be encouraged to seek advice from a trained reputable health care professional, someone who knows their medical history. They should think twice if someone is offering a treatment outside standards of practice.

The stakes are too high not to have these difficult conversations. If a stem cell treatment sounds too good to be true, it probably is.

For more information on recognised stem cell treatments visit the National Stem Cell Foundation of Australia and Stem Cells Australia, Choice Australia, EuroStemCell, International Society for Stem Cell Research, and International Society for Cellular Therapy.

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Embryonic Stem Cells – Definitions, Use, and Research

By Embryonic Stem Cells

Embryonic stem cells are cells that can give rise to all of the tissues types that form the human body.These stem cells are supporting research into new drugs, being explored for disease reversal, and being utilized to create healthy new tissue to heal injuries.

Embryonic stem cells are also controversial to produce, which has substantially limited their use.Learn more about these cells below.

In this article:

Embryonic stem cells are unique cells that exist in an early-stage embryo. During pregnancy, they develop into all of the cells and tissues that form the fetus and the newborn it grows into.

Embryonic or otherwise, stem cells differ from other types of cells and represent a fraction of the trillion of cells that compose the human body. Unlike regular cells, embryonic stem cells can reproduce. They can also turn into different kinds of cells, known as differentiation.

These pluripotent stem cells boast special characteristics that often make them better suited for therapeutic purposes than adult stem cells. Its helpful to remember that adult stem cells can also refer to those in newborns and children. The term simply means that the cells are sourced from a human being after a live birth This makes adult stem cell types non-controversial.

The embryos used to create embryonic stem cells come from in vitro fertilization clinics. These embryos would have otherwise been destroyed or discarded as medical waste by the fertility clinic, because they were not chosen for implantation into a mother or surrogate.

Because they are created from embryos, some people are opposed to research involving embryonic stem cells. Other groups, like the Michael J. Fox Foundation, have been highly favorable toward embryonic stem cell research, because the cells are versatile and have great potential for use in regenerative medicine to cure a range of diseases that burden the human race, such as Parkinsons disease, Alzheimers disease, multiple sclerosis (MS), and more.

To gauge what percentage of the public supports embryonic stem cell research, BioInformant posted a Twitter poll on September 16, 2018. The results of this poll are shown below, showing that slightly more than half of respondents support embryonic stem cell research (58%) and an astounding 84% of respondents either support embryonic stem cell research or think it depends on the situation.

Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) are pluripotent cells that are derived from embryos at fertility clinics and provided with informed donor consent. Embryonic stem cells are usually harvested shortly after fertilization (within 4-5 days) by transferring the inner cell mass of the blastocyst into a cell culture medium, so that the cells can be multiplied in a laboratory.

Pluripotent cells can give rise to all of the cell types that form the human body, making them very powerful for use within regenerative medicine applications.

As the name suggests, human embryonic stem cells are derived from human embryos, which makes them controversial to produce. Thankfully, these cells are only produced from embryos that would otherwise treated as biological waste produced as a byproduct of the assisted fertility process at fertility clinics.

In contrast, embryonic stem cells can also be derived animal sources, such as from mice, rats, monkeys, and more. These animal derived embryonic stem cells are substantially less controversial for use in research applications. Unfortunately, they also have few therapeutic applications, because there are immunological issues associated with using animal cells within humans.

If @UWMadison is the birthplace of human embryonic stem cells, then the Primate Research Center is the cradle. Marina Emborg A starring role for nonhuman primates in the stem cell story fantastic article https://t.co/JNXDZ26KGh pic.twitter.com/h1ZQNYbnL1

Speaking of Research (@SpeakofResearch) September 13, 2018

Researchers harvest human embryonic stem cells from a blastocyst. Thats the scientific name for an embryo in its earliest form, usually 4-5 days past the fertilization stage. In traditional human pregnancy, the blastocyst stage occurs before the embryo reaches and implants within the mothers uterine wall. At this blastocyst stage, the young embryo has about 150 cells. That makes it easy to isolate them for harvesting.

Blastocyst embryos used for harvesting come from embryos created in fertility clinics, not from a womans uterus. Researchers harvest them with the permission of the sperm and egg donors. Once created, the blastocyst embryos can be preserved indefinitely under laboratory conditions.

Researchers harvest the embryo stem cell at the Day 4 or 5 stage. This time frame is crucial, because it is just after the embryo begins dividing multiple cells within itself, but before those cells begin to differentiate.

To differentiate, as the name suggests, means that the cells begin to become specific to one of the three germ layers. However, an inner cell mass (ICM) does form, within a protective outer layer. The cells get harvested from the ICM after scientists penetrate the outer layer.

Scientists first isolated embryonic stem cells in mice in 1981. Much later, they isolated human embryonic stem cells in 1998. Ethical concerns caused much of that gap in research. For moral and practical reasons, the cellsneededto be harvested from embryos thatdidnt come from a pregnant woman.

Fortunately, by the late1990sfertility clinics perfected many new techniques. Those breakthroughs not only meant higher success rates for hopeful couples, they also created more viable embryos from which stem cells could be extracted. The clinics reportedly had about 11,200 embryos in frozen storage that would otherwise be discarded. Instead, the clinics donated some for stem cell research.

Scientists cleared the second major research hurdle in 2001 when the federal government decided to fund embryonic stem cell research. This support allowed various research facilities to obtain and study the embryos.

The breakthrough came at an exciting time, because researchers had only recently learned how to extract the needed embryonic stem cells. The mouse-related discovery in 1981 was important. However, those cells differ too much from human embryonic stem cells to put the knowledge to use. In the interim, researcher achieved breakthroughs with other primates.

Scientists value embryonic stem cells because of theirpluripotent properties. For the non-scientists among us, that means they cells are highly versatile and capable of becoming a wide range of cell types. Many stem cells can only produce exact copies of themselves for example, blood cells to blood cells, bone cells to bone cells, and so forth. apluripotentstem cell is defined as a cell that can change itself into nearly any cell or tissue type within the human body.

In practice, this allows scientists to turn embryonic stem cells into any part of the body. Cells develop in layers, known as germ layers. Humans have three germ layers. The outermost, the ectoderm, consists of skin and nervous system. Next, the mesoderm, make up bones, blood, muscles,and the genial system. The innermost germ cell layer, theendoterm, includes lung and digestive system cells. Taken together, adult humans have 220 different types of cells within those three layers.

Embryonic stem cells keep generating new cells, making them useful. These reproductive abilities mean the stem cells ultimately form tissue to can be used to help patients. The tissues can also be used by scientists to conduct medical research.

While embryonic stem cells are pluripotent stem cells, there are also two other types of stem cells: totipotent and multipotent cells. What is the difference between they cell types? The answer is simple.

Totipotentstem cells are the most versatile stem cell type, because they are formed shortly after fertilization of an egg cell by a sperm cell. They can become all of the cells of the human body, as well as the cells of the embryo and developing fetus.At about four days into development, these totipotent cells specialize slightly, becoming pluripotent stem cells, such as the embryonic stem cell.

Later, multipotent stem cells form, which are again more limited in what they can become.They cells types usually prefer to become cells of a certain class or category.

For example, hematopoieticstem cells (HSCs) are a type of multipotent stem cell that prefer to become cells of the blood and immune system, although it it possible to induce them to become other cell types.

Scientists only recently began to understand how many diseases and conditions embryonic stem cells may be able to treat. Research is still ongoing. Because so many health problems involve the dysfuntion or death of cells, human embryonic stem cells may be able to reverse the progress of these diseases.

In the future embryonic stem cells may contribute to the treatment of Parkinsons disease, heart disease, diabetes, spinal cord injuries, vision problems, or other diseases and conditions.

How Can Stem Cell Therapy Help You? | What Diseases Can Be Treated with Stem Cell Therapy https://t.co/lqiH5Z6Xhi

BioInformant (@StemCellMarket) June 23, 2018

Suitable subjects for testing present a major stumbling block toward radical breakthroughs in pharmacology. Early versions of medicinal drugs and surgical procedures carry potential side effects that may not come out until testing actually occurs. This is obviously problematic for any human subjects, especially for those already frail from the disease or injury.

That is why human embryonic stem cells present a radical opportunity for new breakthroughs in drug therapy and surgical procedures. Scientists can grow healthy tissue from embryonic stem cells to see how that tissue responds to these therapies. They can also give that tissue specific disorders, then attempt to cure it with new medical breakthroughs.

Human embryonic stem cells have the ability to transform into other cells. From those new cells, scientists can create heart tissue, bone marrow tissue, blood samples or other body parts which they need to test. In doing so, they can avoid experimenting on patients.

In addition to embryonic stem cells, several broad categories of stem cells exist, including:

Stem cell research has been going on for over 50 years because stem cells have a unique ability to divide and replicate repeatedly. In addition, their unspecialized nature makes them of great interest for regenerative medicine applications.

Adult stem cells also hold more great promise. In healthy humans, adult stem cells produce new cells when needed, to maintain normal functions and repair minor wounds and disorders. However, they are considered less versatile, because they cannot differentiate into all tissue types that compose the human body like embryonic stem cells.

Adult stem cells typically have a preference to become certain tissues within the human body. For example, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are a widely researched adult stem cell type. Although HSCs prefer to become cells of the blood and immune system, they can sometimes be coaxed to become other cell types.

Another example of the utility of adult stem cells is the success of bone marrow transplants. Bone marrow transplants treat patients with cancer whose immune systems have been compromised by chemotherapy or radiation. A bone marrow transplant from a donor or from the patient, prior to treatment uses bone marrow stem cells to help generate new cell production.

Over time, researchers have discovered adult stem cells in many sites throughout the human body. Adult stem cells are now known to exist in the blood, bone marrow, fat (adipose) tissue, dental pulp, neural tissue, and many other sites.

These stem cells are capable of positively affecting a wide range of diseases through either tissue repair or signalling mechanisms. Particular stem cells types, like mesenchymal stem cells, can lower inflammation, reduce scarring, and improve immune function.

What changed? Until recently, adult stem cells were considered inherently limited, because they do not differentiate into all of the cells that compose the human body. However, researchers have found a variety of ways to activate both cell division and differentiation. This ability to grow more healthy tissue in laboratory conditions could substantially alter the future of medicine.

Access to embryonic stem cells is inherently limited to the number of available samples from fertility clinics. Yet adult donors are more plentiful. This is particularly true if a patient can act as his or her own donor.

What are embryonic stem cells and how can they help heal diseases? Watch the video below to learn more:

What do you want to know about embryonic stem cells? Share your thoughts with us below.

Up Next:How to Find a Stem Cell Clinical Trial for Your Condition?

Embryonic Stem Cells Definitions, Use, and Research

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Embryonic Stem Cells - Definitions, Use, and Research

Will Embryonic Stem Cells Ever Cure Anything? – MIT …

By Embryonic Stem Cells

When his son Sam was diagnosed with type 1 diabetes at six months of age, Doug Melton was incredulous. I remember at night, my wife and I pricking his heel, and saying No, this cant be, this cant be, he says. It felt like we had lost the lottery.

Later, his daughter would receive the same diagnosis. By then, Melton had already dropped what he was doingstudying frog eggs at Harvardand launched an effort to grow pancreatic cells from scratch in his lab. The beta cells of the pancreas are the ones killed off in type 1 diabetes, and Melton reasoned he could replace them using new tissue manufactured from embryonic stem cells.

Meltons effort, involving a 30-person lab at Harvard and a startup company, Semma Therapeutics, which he named after his children, Sam and Emma, is one of the most costly and sustained efforts to turn stem cells into transplantable tissue, an attempt that Melton admits has been full of false starts and dead ends. The public definitely doesnt appreciate that much of science is failure, he says.

In fact, no field of biotechnology has promised more and delivered less in the way of treatments than embryonic stem cells. Only a handful of human studies has ever been carried out, without significant results. The cells, culled from IVF embryos, are capable of developing into any other tissue type in the body, and therefore promise an unlimited supply of replacement tissue.

Sounds simple, but it hasnt been. It took Melton and his team 15 years to unveil each molecular step required to coax a stem cell into a pancreatic beta cell able to sense glucose and secrete insulin. The recipe uses a cocktail of chemicals and a three-dimensional incubation system, tall spinning flasks brewing what looks like murky red Gatorade, that within 30 days can direct the differentiation of stem cells into fully functional beta cells.

Earlier this year, Melton was finally able to demonstrate he could control blood glucose levels of mice for six months using transplants of human beta cells. He thinks he can do that in humans and stretch the therapeutic effect out to a year, a goal thats been turned over to Semma, which is designing an implantable pouch to hold and protect the cells.

Over the last two years, Semma has raised just under $50 million from venture capital firms, California's stem-cell agency, and corporate partners including Novartis and Medtronic. William Sahlman, a Harvard Business School professor who sits on Semma's board, says people are prepared to put very large amounts of money on the experiments. One reason: the global market for insulin exceeds $30 billion a year. Tests strips and monitors might double that.

Because their bodies mount an immune attack on the pancreatic cells that regulate blood glucose, type 1 diabetics are constantly measuring their blood sugar levels with finger pricks and injecting insulin multiple times a day. Their lives can be foreshortened by more than a decade. You could almost say that cellular therapy is the natural solution, Melton says. Its not the technological solution. Its not the Google solution. Its natures solution to the problem. Youre providing the cell which is missing.

Several companies are attempting a tech solution, however, by using electronics to build an artificial pancreas that combines a continuous glucose monitor, an insulin pump, and a sensor with an algorithm to control dosing. Medtronic is nearing FDA approval with one such closed loop system; its smartphone-sized MiniMed 670G performed well in early trials. One of Googles sister companies, Verily, is itself developing glucose-sensing contact lenses and ultra-thin sensors.

San Diego-based ViaCyte, working with Johnson & Johnson, was first to try pancreatic cells derived from embryos in people. It has built an implantable packet of immature cells, which it hopes will differentiate inside the body, and last year opened a clinical trial to test the idea.

Semma also thinks it needs to turn embryonic stem cells into not only insulin-secreting beta cells, but a full-fledged isletthe cluster of cells that includes the alpha, beta, delta, and ancillary cells normally found in a pancreas. Thats a complex objective but one that closely mimics biology. Theres a reason during evolution that these cells are adjacent to one another, says Felicia Pagliuca, Semma's cofounder and a veteran of Meltons lab.

In order to deliver their lab-grown islet to diabetics, Semma is developing prototypes of an iPhone-sized, retrievable packet whose materials insulate it from the immune system, so that patients dont have to take immune-suppressing drugs, as they would if they had a kidney transplant. Christopher Thanos, Semma's vice president of delivery, says his team is modeling physiological processes inside and around the device to experiment with different rates of oxygen, nutrients, and insulin diffusion.

Some outside experts think protecting the cells will not be possible. I'm not optimistic that encapsulation is going to provide the answer, says David Cooper, a professor of surgery at the University of Pittsburgh working on growing human islets in pigs. I personally don't think a device is ever going to be successful. It's impossible to keep all the injurious agents out, he says, referring to the cytokines, antibodies, and other compounds the body releases in response to a foreign body. There's really very little evidence that a capsule can protect you completely from an immune response.

The prospect of surgery every year for the rest of your life is also a practical concern. How many diabetics would sign up for 50, 60, 70 surgeries over the course of a lifetime? What will be the effect of repeated scarring around the surgical site? Melton says the inconvenience of surgery has to be weighed against the thousands of finger pricks and injections that diabetics must administer every year. My kids say once a month they wouldnt hesitate. I think thats a bit extreme, he says. But if it was twice a year, I think thats a go.

If the device does not work, Semma has a backup plan of sorts. It received a $5 million grant from CIRM, the California stem-cell agency, to manufacture islets out of a patient's own tissue using induced pluripotent stem cells. That is a process by which adult cells, like skin cells, are reprogrammed into stem cells. Such matching cells wouldnt be rejected by the body as foreignand might not need as much protectionalthough they probably would not avoid damage by the processes that cause type 1 diabetes in the first place. Semma believes they could help a fraction of patients whose diabetes has different causes.

Semma still has no timeline for when its implantable biotech pancreas could be ready. That means Melton's children will have to wait a while longer. Im sorry it takes so long, says Melton, but it is going to work.

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Will Embryonic Stem Cells Ever Cure Anything? - MIT ...

Adult Stem Cell Therapy – regenocyte.com

By Adult Stem Cells

For more than 40 years, adult stem cells have been used to treat cancer patients. Recent advancements in adult stem cell therapy have been astounding. Cells from an ill patient are being used as part of the treatment. There is no possibility of the body rejecting the new tissue formed, making stem cell treatment safe and effective in achieving positive medical outcomes. It is important to note that adult stem cell therapy is not controversial because it involves the use of a patients own tissues and NOT derived from embryos.

Clinical results from cardiac, pulmonary, neurological, and vascular procedures have shown that the adult stem cell procedures are as safe as traditional procedures and are complimentary to current medical practice.

Visit our Facebook Page and read more about our real life patients and how adult stem cell therapy has changed their lives.

Adult stem cells are extracted from the patients bone marrow and fat (adipose). At Intercellular Sciences, the naturally occurring stem cells in the blood are cultivated into millions of Regenocyte Adult Stem Cells. The Regenocyte Stem Cells are produced in our international treatment center and are administered into the area of need for the patient. Once injected, they stimulate tissue re-growth and greater blood flow to the affected areas. The goal of the treatment is to replace damaged cells and to promote the growth of new blood vessels and tissues in order to help the target organ function at a greater capacity. There is no risk of rejection since the Adult Stem Cells received are directly from the patient. Regenocyte Adult Stem Cell Therapy is safe, highly effective and presents minimal risk.

Stem Cell Treatment: Cardiac

Stem Cell Treatment: Pulmonary

Stem Cell Treatment: Vascular

Stem Cell Treatment: Neurologic

If you think that adult stem cell therapy treatment may be out of reach for your health issues, it is not. Treatment is available today. Regenocyte Adult Stem Cell Therapy results have exceeded expectations. For more information on Intercellular Sciences treatments, results, and updates on advances in adult stem cell therapy, please register for our newsletter today.

To find out more today, click here or call us at (866) 216-5710

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Adult Stem Cell Therapy - regenocyte.com

Summary: What is an Adult Stem Cell? | Stem Cells Portal …

By Adult Stem Cells

Adult stem cells can proliferate without differentiating for a long period (a characteristic referred to as long-term self-renewal), and they can give rise to mature cell types that have characteristic shapes and specialized functions.

Some adult stem cells have the capability to differentiate into tissues other than the ones from which they originated; this is referred to as plasticity.

Adult stem cells are rare. Often they are difficult to identify and their origins are not known. Current methods for characterizing adult stem cells are dependent on determining cell surface markers and observations about their differentiation patterns in test tubes and culture dishes.

To date, published scientific literature indicates that adult stem cells have been derived from brain, bone marrow, peripheral blood, dental pulp, spinal cord, blood vessels, skeletal muscle, epithelia of the skin and digestive system, cornea, retina, liver, and pancreas; thus, adult stem cells have been found in tissues that develop from all three embryonic germ layers.

Hematopoietic stem cells from bone marrow are the most studied and used for clinical applications in restoring various blood and immune components to the bone marrow via transplantation. There are at least two other populations of adult stem cells that have been identified from bone marrow and blood.

Several populations of adult stem cells have been identified in the brain, particularly the hippocampus. Their function is unknown. Proliferation and differentiation of brain stem cells are influenced by various growth factors.

There are now several reports of adult stem cells in other tissues (muscle, blood, and fat) that demonstrate plasticity. Very few published research reports on plasticity of adult stem cells have, however, included clonality studies. That is, there is limited evidence that a single adult stem cell or genetically identical line of adult stem cells demonstrates plasticity.

Rarely have experiments that claim plasticity demonstrated that the adult stem cells have generated mature, fully functional cells or that the cells have restored lost function in vivo.

What are the sources of adult stem cells in the body? Are they "leftover" embryonic stem cells, or do they arise in some other way? And if the latter is truewhich seems to be the caseexactly how do adult stem cells arise, and why do they remain in an undifferentiated state, when all the cells around them have differentiated?

Is it possible to manipulate adult stem cells to increase their ability to proliferate in vitro, so that adult stem cells can be used as a sufficient source of tissue for transplants?

How many kinds of adult stem cells exist, and in which tissues do they exist? Evidence is accumulating that, although they occur in small numbers, adult stem cells are present in many differentiated tissues.

What is the best evidence that adult stem cells show plasticity and generate cell types of other tissues?

Is it possible to manipulate adult stem cells to increase their ability to proliferate in vitro so that adult stem cells can be used as a sufficient source of tissue for transplants?

Is there a universal stem cell? An emerging concept is that, in adult mammals, there may be a population of "universal" stem cells. Although largely theoretical, the concept has some experimental basis. A candidate, universal adult stem cell may be one that circulates in the blood stream, can escape from the blood, and populate various adult tissues. In more than one experimental system, researchers have noted that dividing cells in adult tissues often appear near a blood vessel, such as candidate stem cells in the hippocampus, a region of the brain [75].

Do adult stem cells exhibit plasticity as a normal event in vivo? If so, is this true of all adult stem cells? What are the signals that regulate the proliferation and differentiation of stem cells that demonstrate plasticity?

Excerpt from:
Summary: What is an Adult Stem Cell? | Stem Cells Portal ...

Stem Cell Treatment for Ataxia – Stem Cell Treatment Now

By Stem Cell Treatment

How does ataxia affect the patient? The disease is characterized by progressively disabling clinical manifestations. Patients show symptoms of gait instability or dysarthria and may begin to fall without warning. Gradually they present progressive limitations in their activities, lose the ability to walk, become bedridden and fully dependent. Other clinical manifestations include astasia, impaired fine motor skillsand intention tremor (cerebellar tremor). The cerebellar syndrome is often associated with other neurological signs such as pyramidal or extrapyramidal signs, ophthalmoplegia, and cognitive impairment.

How to diagnose ataxia? Most people dont know what ataxia is and may overlook the early symptoms. Anyone with progressive gait disorder or imbalance should be evaluated by a neurologist. MRI is recommended in all cases. If a treatable cause is not discovered, a gene test should be done. In about 60 percent of the cases, the gene test will determine the type of ataxia.

What is the efficacy of conventionaltreatments? Until now, conventional treatments are generally used to alleviate the symptoms, not the disease itself. The movement disorders can be managed using pharmacological, physical and occupational therapies to minimize the damage and to promote the mobility as long as possible but overall current treatment remains retardant.

What are the difference between autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive ataxias? Autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive ataxias are hereditary ataxias, and spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) and Friedreich's ataxia (FRDA) are the most common forms of hereditary ataxia. Autosomal dominant genes express themselves when present. Autosomal recessive genes will only express themselves when in the homozygous state -- i.e., both genes in the gene pair are the recessive gene form. Thus, recessive genes can be "carried" by those whose phenotype does not exhibit the gene characteristic, while dominant genes cannot be "carried". Therefore, generally autosomal dominant ataxias are easier to express andat a higher morbiditythan autosomal recessive ataxias.

What is the role of Purkinje cells, where can we find those cells ? Purkinjecellsare a type of neuron found in the cerebellar cortex, at the base of the brain.They are among the largest neurons and are responsible for most of the electrochemical signaling in the cerebellum. ThePurkinjecellsand the cerebellum are essential to the body's motor function. Disorders involving thePurkinjecellsusually negatively affect the patient's movements.

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Stem Cell Treatment for Ataxia - Stem Cell Treatment Now

Stem Cell Therapy | Lighthouse Medical Center …

By Stem Cell Medical Center

Therapeutic STEM CELL THERAPY What is Regenerative Medicine & Therapeutic stem cell Treatment?

Wharton's Jelly or umbilical cord tissue contain many Regenerative factors like anti inflammatory cytokines, rowth factors, hyaluronic acid & Mesenchymal Stem Cells.

Lighthouse Medical Center offers treatments that are designed to kick start your own body's healing. Not a temporary fix or to act as a mask for pain. By building on what your body can innately do, and stimulating it in a very powerful way through a protocol of injections and therapies, stem cell and regenerative medicine can provide complete and total healing without the stress, cost, and downtime of surgery.

Featuring premium regenerative therapies including:CoreCyte, AmnioCyte Plus, PolyCyte and PRP therapeuticstem cell therapies, our treatments provide real healing for our patients!We use Cell products that contain Mesenchymal Stem Cells.

Join us for aFREE SEMINAR on stem cell therapy! Fill out the contact information below and we will reach out to you ! Lighthouse Medical Center has 1-2 seminars monthly.

Therapeutic stem cells are the body's raw materials cells from which all other cells with specialized functions are generated(Mayoclinic.org).

Over time our tissue can lose functionality due to age, injury, and disease. That can mean longer healing time, cellular aging and changing chemical environments. Fortunately, each person is born with building blocks capable of repairing and replenishing tissue.

We here at Lighthouse Medical Center use therapeutic stem cells and tissue products that are processed in an FDAregistered lab. The minimally manipulated tissue products are prepared to utilize proprietary extraction methods that reduce the loss of important cytokines, growth factors, proteins, and biomolecules.

Lighthouse Medical Center offers the mostinnovative techniques in Therapeutic stem cell and regenerative medicine therapies. We offer a plethora of therapies for various orthopedic conditions and injuries.

Therapeutic Stem cell and regenerative medicine at Lighthouse Medical Center includes the collection and use of therapeutic stem cells toincrease function, reduce the rate of degeneration, reduce inflammation, reduce scar tissue and promote healing in themusculoskeletal system, including: shoulders, elbows, wrists, hips, knees, ankles, neck and the back.

Just to name a few;

Mesenchymal stem cell

therapy also helps with :

Shoulder pain

Knee pain

Joint back

Back pain

Hip pain

osteoarthritis

If you have tennis elbow,

golfers elbow, plantar fasciitis

and rotator cuff injuriesand

are lookingfor a solution to

the challenges you face,

regenerative and Therapeutic

stem cell medicine therapies

might be exactly whats right

for you.

Dr. Beylers 3 Month Therapeutic Stem Cell Therapy Testimony

Knee And Hip One MonthTherapeutic Stem Cell Testimony

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Stem Cell Therapy | Lighthouse Medical Center ...

Braselton Georgia Stem Cell Therapy – Revive Medical Center

By Stem Cell Medical Center

Stem cells have been in the news a lot lately, and they have already proven their value in clinical trials and cutting edge medical treatments. Unlike other kinds of cells, stem cells have the ability to transform themselves. These unique cells can become any other type of cell, and that ability is what gives them their power.

Stem cells have been called many things, from the master cell of the human body to the building block of life. In the end, however, it does not matter what they are called what really matters is how they work.

There is a detailed scientific explanation of the stem cell, but what you really need to know is that these cells are undifferentiated. That undifferentiated status means that stem cells can transform themselves into virtually any type of cell in the body. Scientific studies and clinical trials have already shown that stem cells injected into heart muscle can become heart cells, and that adding stem cells to the brain can stimulate the growth of brain tissue.

In addition to their other abilities, stem cells may be a real alternative to invasive surgeries. If your doctor has suggested surgery to treat an exercise injury or other ailment, you owe it to yourself to check out stem cell therapy as an alternative.

Surgery can be effective, but there are significant downsides, including long recovery times and possible complications. Stem cells, on the other hand, can provide the effectiveness of surgery with none of the downside risk. If you think stem cells could be the answer, just give Revive Medical Center a call. Our stem cell therapy experts can assess the situation and provide a custom recommendation to treat your injury.

At Revive Medical Center, most of our Braselton, Georgia area residents are able to return to work the very same day. Instead of spending days in the hospital and weeks recuperating at home, our stem cell therapy patients can enjoy their lives and get back to work fast, with minimal downtime and no pain.

Professional athletes are already using stem cells to improve their game and get a new lease on life, and now Braselton area residents can do the same. Not all stem treatments are the same, and Revive Medical Center strives to be the best. Whether you have suffered an injury or just want to avoid surgery, you owe it to yourself to check out the power of stem cells.

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Braselton Georgia Stem Cell Therapy - Revive Medical Center

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