Lab-grown snake venom glands are here. Dont worry; theyre for a good cause – Digital Trends

Every year, the equivalent of the total population of Tuscaloosa, Alabama slightly more than 100,000 people die worldwide as a result of snake bites. Provided a snake bite victim is able to get to the emergency room quick enough, antivenom can be used to counter the deadly effects of a bite. But antivenom isnt easy to manufacture. Its made by collecting venom from venomous snakes and injecting small quantities of it into a domestic animal such as a horse. The antibodies that form can then be collected from the horses blood and purified to make a finished antivenom. So far, so straightforward.

The problem is getting hold of enough venom to make it. Antivenom is currently manufactured by catching or breeding snakes, keeping them in captivity, and then regularly milking them to gather the venom they produce. Its a 19th century treatment thats made necessary by the fact that antivenom production has not developed as fast as other areas of biotechnology. With 600 species of venomous snake, its also a labour-intensive job which nonetheless struggles to create antidotes enough to meet the number of annual snake bites. Could genetic engineering be the answer?

A group of three researchers at Utrecht University in the Netherlands think so. And their idea for achieving it is kind of brilliant. Rather than creating lab-grown venomous snakes an idea that, frankly, would only sound good to one of the screenwriters of Sharknado theyve come up with an alternative solution: Simply grow the part of the snake that you need.

We were thinking about novel areas for [our] organoid technology, Hans Clevers, whose lab carried out the work, told Digital Trends. Snake venom glands were the most fascinating tissue to us. A main first hurdle was to obtain snake tissue. Luckily, a collaboration with snake experts Michael Richardson and Freek Vonk, as well as the Dutch reptile zoo Serpo and local breeders solved this issue. After some months of optimizing the protocols, we were successful in growing miniature venom glands. Since then, we have been optimizing the protocol to produce venom and have characterized the cells which make the toxins.

Aspidelaps lubricus hatching (individuals not used in study) Jeremie Tai-A-Pin

An organoid, for those unfamiliar with it, is a miniaturized and simplified version of an organ, complete with realistic micro-anatomy. Theyre made using stem cells, which let them self-organize in a three-dimensional culture to transform into the organ theyre supposed to replicate. The emerging organ is a clump of cells around 1 millimeter across. Organoids have been created by various labs around the world, approximating organs that range from kidneys to miniature, non-conscious brains. In this case, the venomous organoids resemble a tiny pea-sized balloon filled with liquid. One that would be particularly inhumane to fire across the classroom like a spitball wad.

Our group has been successful in the past 10 years in growing organoids from a variety of human tissues, Joep Beumer, another researcher on the project, explained. To generate these, we harvest stem cells from adult tissue and embed them into a gel in a petri dish. With the right growth factor mix, the stem cells will divide and give rise to mini-organs containing the different cell types of one tissue.

The tissue samples for the venom organoids were taken from gland tissue from snake embryos inside eggs or, in one instance, from a pet snake which had been put down as a result of illness. To grow the gland organoids, the team had to make a few changes to their normal approach. Snakes are cold-blooded. Mammalian organoid protocols are normally grown at a temperature of 37 degrees Celsius (99 degrees Fahrenheit). Unfortunately, this didnt work for the snake organoids. At this temperature, the organoids suffered heat shock response and died. As a result, they had to lower the temperature to 32 degrees Celsius. Its a demonstration of how, even at this scale, the concepts and signaling pathways of adult stem cells are conserved in organoids.

Every tissue has its own characteristics which we aim to model with organoids, said Yorick Post, the third researcher on the project. For the snake venom gland this was a very obvious case: would they make venom? We knew that the potential of this technology would hinge greatly on the ability to produce the different toxins which constitute snake venom. So we were very excited when we found toxins first on RNA, and later on [the] protein level.

This work is extremely promising. The researchers think it could potentially go beyond just cutting out the snake-farming part of the antivenom process as well. They believe it might be possible to grow the immune cells that are usually produced by animals inside a dish. Alongside antivenom, the approach could also be useful for helping develop drug compounds based on components found in snake venom. For instance, theres a certain type of blood pressure medicine thats created from a toxin produced by the venomous Brazilian pit viper.

And as to, no pun intended, the scaling up part of the project? This is one of the main advantages of organoid technology, Clevers said. Once established, we can expand the tissue [in a] pretty much unlimited [manner]. This can help to preserve viable cells of many snake species, as they can be frozen and thawed easily. [It can also help us] generate large numbers of venom producing cells. Further improvements in venom production and harvesting will be needed to make this approach cost efficient. We are actively working towards these aims.

A paper describing the work was recently published in the journal Cell.

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Lab-grown snake venom glands are here. Dont worry; theyre for a good cause - Digital Trends

Space might be the perfect place to grow human organs – Popular Science

Three-dimensional printers have now assembled candy, clothing, and even mouse ovaries. But in the next decade, specialized bioprinters could begin to build functioning human organs in space. It turns out, the minimal gravity conditions in space may provide a more ideal environment for building organs than gravity-heavy Earth.

If successful, space-printed organs could help to shorten transplant waitlists and even eliminate organ rejection. Though they still have a long way to go, researchers at the International Space Station (ISS) hope to eventually assemble organs from adult human cells, including stem cells.

The medical field has only recently embraced 3D printing in general, particularly in biomedical fields like regenerative medicine and prosthetics. So far, these printers have produced early versions of blood vessels, bones, and different types of living tissue by churning out repeated layers of bioinka substance comprised of living human cells and other tissue thats meant to mimic the natural environment that surrounds growing organs.

Recently, researchers are finding that Earth might not be the best environment for growing freestanding organs. Because gravity is constantly pushing down on these delicate structures as they grow, researchers must surround the tissues in scaffolding, which can often debilitate the delicate veins and blood vessels and prevent the soon-to-be organs from growing and functioning properly. Within microgravity, however, soft tissues hold their shape naturally, without the need for surrounding supportan observation thats driven researchers to space.

And one manufacturing lab based in Indiana thinks its tech could play a key role in space. The 3D BioFabrication Facility (BFF) is a specialized 3D printer that uses bioink to build layers several times thinner than human hair. It cost about $7 million to build and employs the smallest print tips in existence.

The brainchild of spaceflight equipment developer Techshot and 3D printer manufacturer nScrypt, the BFF headed to the ISS in July 2019 aboard the SpaceX CRS-18.

Currently, the project focuses on building increasingly thick artificial cardiac tissue and delivering it back to Earth. Once the printed cardiac tissue reaches a certain thickness, it gets harder for researchers to ensure that a printed structures layers effectively grow into one another. Ultimately, though, theyd like the organs to arrive here fully formed.

Printed organs would eventually require vasculature and nerve endings to work properly, though that technology doesnt yet exist.

The next stagetesting heart patches under microscopes and within animalscould span over the next four years. As for whole organs, Techshot claims it plans to begin production after 2025. For now, the project is still in its infancy.

If you were to look at what we printed, it looks very modest, says Techshot vice president of corporate advancement Rich Boling. Its just a cuboid-type shape, this rectangular box. Were just trying to get cells to grow one layer into the next.

Cooking organs like pancakes

Compare the manufacturing process to cooking pancakes, Boling says. The space crew first creates a custom bioink pancake mix with the cells sent from Earth, which they load with syringe-like tools into the BFF.

Researchers then insert a cassette into the BFF containing a bioreactora system that mimics the normal bodily functions essential for growing healthy tissue, like providing nutrients and flushing out waste.

Approximately 200 miles below in Greenville, Indiana, Techshot engineers connect with ISS astronauts on a NASA-enabled secure digital pathway. The linkup allows Techshot to remotely command BFF functions like pump pressure, internal temperature, lighting, and print speed.

Next, the actual printing process occurs within the bioreactor and can take anywhere from moments to hours, depending on the shapes complexity. In the final production step, the cell-culturing ADvanced Space Experiment Processor (ADSEP) cooks the theoretical pancake; essentially, the ADSEP toughens up the printed tissue for its journey back to earth. This step could take anywhere from 12 to 45 days for different tissue types. When completed and hardened, the structure heads home.

The researchers have gone through three testing processes so far, each one getting more exact. This March, theyll begin the third round of experiments.

The bioprinter space race

The BFF lab is the sole team developing this specific type of microgravity bioprinter, Boling says. Theyre not the only ones looking to print human organs in space, though.

A Russian project has also entered the bioprinting space race, however their technique highly differs. Unlike the BFFs bioink layering method, Russian biotechnology laboratory 3D Bioprinting Solutions uses magnetic nanoparticles to produce tissue. An electromagnet creates a magnetic field in which levitating tissue forms the desired structuretechnology that appears ripped from the pages of a sci-fi novel.

After their bioprinter fell victim to an October 2018 spacecraft crash, 3D Bioprinting Solutions rebounded; the team now collaborates with US and Israeli researchers at the ISS. Last month, their crew created the first space-bioprinted bone tissue. Similar to the US project, 3D Bioprinting Solutions aims to manufacture functioning human tissues and organs for transplantation and general repair.

Just because we have the technology to do it, should we do it?

If the 3D BioFabrication Facility prospers in printing working human organs, theyd be subject to thorough regulation here on Earth. The US approval process is stringent for any drug, Rich Boling says, posing a challenge for this unprecedented invention. Techshot predicts at least 10 years for space-printed organs to achieve legal approval, though its an inexact estimate.

Along with regulatory acceptance, human tissue printed in microgravity may encounter societal pushback.

Each country maintains varying laws related to medical transplants. Yet as bioengineering advances into the the final frontier, the international scientific research community may need to shape new guidelines for collaboration among the stars.

As the commercialization of low-Earth orbit continues to ramp up in the next few years, it is certainly true that were going to have to take a very close look at the regulations that apply to that, says International Space Station U.S. National Laboratory interim chief scientist Michael Roberts. And some of those regulations are going to stray into questions related to ethics: Just because we have the technology to do it, should we do it?

Niki Vermeulen, a University of Edinburgh science technology and innovation studies lecturer, has researched the social implications of 3D bioprinting experiments. Like any Earth-bound project, she urges scientists not to get peoples hopes up too early in the process; individuals seeking organ transplants could read about the BFF online and think it could soon be ready to meet their needs.

The most important thing now, I think, is expectation management, Vermeulen says. Because its really quite difficult to do this, and of course we really dont know if its going to work. If it did, it would be amazing.

Another main issue is cost. Like other cutting-edge biotechnology innovations, the organs could also pose a major affordability challenge, she says. Techshot claims that a single space-printed organ could actually cost less than one from a human donor, since some people must pay for a lifetime of anti-rejection meds and/or multiple transplants. Theres currently no telling how long the BFF process would actually take, however, compared to the conventional donor route.

Plus, theres potential health risks for recipients: Techshot chief scientist Eugene Boland says cell manipulation always presents a possibility of genetic mutation. Modified stem cells can potentially cause cancer in recipients, for example.

The team is now working to define and minimize any dangers, he says. The BFF experiment adheres to the FDAs specific regulations for human cells, tissues, and cellular and tissue-based products.

Researchers on the ground now hope to perfect human cell manipulation: Over 100 US clinical trials presently test cultured autologous human cells, and several hundred test cultured stem cells with multiple origins.

What comes next

After the next round of printing tests this March, Techshot will share the bioprinter with companies and research institutions looking to print materials like cartilage, bone, and liver tissue. Theyre currently preparing the bioprinter for these additional uses, Boling says, which could advance health care as a whole.

To speed things up for space crews, Techshot is now building a cell factory that produces multiple cell types in orbit. This technology could cut down the number of cell deliveries between Earth and space.

The ISS has taken in plenty of commercial ventures in recent years, Michael Roberts says, and its getting crowded up there. Space-based experiments ramped up between 40 and 50 years ago, though until recently they mostly prioritized satellite communications and remote observation technology. Since then, satellites have shrunk from bus-sized to smaller than a shoebox.

Roberts has witnessed the scientific areas of interest broaden over the past decade to include medicine. Organizations like the National Institutes of Health are now looking to space to improve treatments, and everything from large pharmaceutical companies to small-scale startups want in.

Theyve got something stuck on every surface up there, he says.

As the ISS runs out of space and exterior attachment points, Roberts predicts that commercial ventures will build new facilities built for specific activities like manufacturing and plant growth. He sees it as a good opportunity for further innovation, since the ISS was originally designed for far more general purposes.

Space, as a whole, may start to look quite different from the first exploration age.

Baby boomers may remember glimpsing at a grainy, black-and-white moon landing five decades ago. Within the same lifetime, they could potentially observe the introduction of space-printed organs.

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Space might be the perfect place to grow human organs - Popular Science

Injection Innovation May Improve Spinal Cord Repair Research – Technology Networks

An international research team, led by physician-scientists at University of California San Diego School of Medicine, describe a new method for delivering neural precursor cells (NSCs) to spinal cord injuries in rats, reducing the risk of further injury and boosting the propagation of potentially reparative cells.NSCs hold great potential for treating a variety of neurodegenerative diseases and injuries to the spinal cord. The stem cells possess the ability to differentiate into multiple types of neural cell, depending upon their environment. As a result, there is great interest and much effort to use these cells to repair spinal cord injuries and effectively restore related functions.

But current spinal cell delivery techniques, said Martin Marsala, MD, professor in the Department of Anesthesiology at UC San Diego School of Medicine, involve direct needle injection into the spinal parenchyma the primary cord of nerve fibers running through the vertebral column. "As such, there is an inherent risk of (further) spinal tissue injury or intraparechymal bleeding," said Marsala.

The new technique is less invasive, depositing injected cells into the spinal subpial space a space between the pial membrane and the superficial layers of the spinal cord.

"This injection technique allows the delivery of high cell numbers from a single injection," said Marsala. "Cells with proliferative properties, such as glial progenitors, then migrate into the spinal parenchyma and populate over time in multiple spinal segments as well as the brain stem. Injected cells acquire the functional properties consistent with surrounding host cells."

Marsala, senior author Joseph Ciacci, MD, a neurosurgeon at UC San Diego Health, and colleagues suggest that subpially-injected cells are likely to accelerate and improve treatment potency in cell-replacement therapies for several spinal neurodegenerative disorders in which a broad repopulation by glial cells, such as oligodendrocytes or astrocytes, is desired.

"This may include spinal traumatic injury, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis," said Ciacci.

The researchers plan to test the cell delivery system in larger preclinical animal models of spinal traumatic injury that more closely mimic human anatomy and size. "The goal is to define the optimal cell dosing and timing of cell delivery after spinal injury, which is associated with the best treatment effect," said Marsala.ReferenceMarsala et al. (2019) Spinal parenchymal occupation by neural stem cells after subpial delivery in adult immunodeficient rats. Stem Cells Translational Medicine. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.19-0156

This article has been republished from the following materials. Note: material may have been edited for length and content. For further information, please contact the cited source.

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Injection Innovation May Improve Spinal Cord Repair Research - Technology Networks

Robots don’t have to be so embarrassing – The Outline

Robots are pathetic. You need only watch a robot soccer fail compilation to see that humans ancient quest to build synthetic replicas of ourselves out of nuts, bolts and wiring has been a bust. Every new, groundbreaking robot inevitably turns out to be an ungodly abomination, either physically inept or utterly incapable of social interaction. Our latest attempt at a full-on humanoid, Sophia, looks like a pre-loved department store mannequin and sounds like a 2007-era chatbot dialed to the VERY DEPRESSED setting. Shed be a walking repudiation of brainless techno-optimism, if she could actually walk.

Even attempts to build simpler, dog-like droids, such as Boston Dynamics Spot, have produced robots barely worthy of the name. They dont look much better than what youd expect from an adult Erector set enthusiasts weekend garage projects. Some people find these things terrifying, but I take my cues from the manufacturers, who seem incredibly proud when one of their creations performs a task as easy as opening a door.

Imitating human intelligence in software has also proven a task more difficult than expected. Despite the well-financed wet dreams of companies like Uber, the automotive industry has begun to quietly admit that truly self-driving cars are going to happen in decades, not just a few years from now. The Blue Brain project, which received a billion euros from the EU in 2013 and promised to simulate a human brain by 2019, did not succeed. Blue Brain seems to have had some success building a 3D atlas of a mouse brain, but the projects supercomputer, which takes up an entire room, is heaving and groaning under the strain of doing the same for a human mind. Valiant efforts to simulate a transparent, one millimetre nematode called C. elegans, ongoing since 2004, have yielded similarly slow progress. C. elegans has 302 neurons. The human brain has 86 billion.

These stuff-ups are endlessly amusing to me. I dont want to mock the engineers who pour thousands of hours into building novelty dogs made of bits of broken toasters, or even the vertiginously arrogant scientists who thought they could simulate the human brain inside a decade. (Inside a decade! I mean, my god!) Well, okay, maybe I do want to mock them. Is it a crime to enjoy watching our cultures systematic over-investment in digital Whiggery get written down in value time and time again?

On the other hand, maybe the people doing this stuff have just figured out that attaching the terms robot or artificial intelligence to whatever youre up to is a great way of attracting investment from rich idiots. Sometimes I feel naive for thinking anyone takes these wild claims seriously, but that is precisely the power of a good ideology. The promises of robotics and AI are so seductive that people suspend their critical faculties. Whether you are a business like Uber striving to eliminate the messy and expensive production input known as human beings, or a normal person desperate for easy transportation or someone to keep your elderly relatives company, the way we talk about robots and AI suggests these smart solutions are just around the corner. Even people with their heads screwed on properly dont seem to understand how credulously the media hypes up their coverage of AI.

What these doomed overreaches represent is a failure to grasp the limits of human knowledge. We dont have a comprehensive idea of how the brain works. There is no solid agreement on what consciousness really is. Is it divine? Is it matter? Can you smoke it? Do these questions even make sense? We dont know the purpose of sleep. We dont know what dreams are for. Sexual dimorphism in the brain remains a mystery. Are you picking up a pattern here? Even the seemingly quotidian mechanical abilities of the human body running, standing, gripping, and so on are not understood with the scientific precision that you might expect. How can you make a convincing replica of something if you dont even know what it is to begin with? We are cosmic toddlers waddling around in daddys shoes, pretending to work at the office by scribbling on the walls in crayon, and then wondering where our paychecks are.

The world is an astonishing place, and the idea that we have in our possession the basic tools needed to understand it is no more credible now than it was in Aristotles day, writes philosopher Thomas Nagel. But accepting this epistemic knuckle sandwich doesnt mean abandoning the pursuit of robotics.

Enter the frogbot, a living machine synthesized by a research team at the Allen Discovery Center at Tufts University in Boston.

Frogbots (called xenobots by their creators, a stupid name I refuse to use), are tiny little artificial animals made out of stem cells from the African clawed frog. They cant do much yet move around on two stumpy legs, carry tiny objects in a pouch but to me, they are stranger and scarier than any robot weve made out of metal and plastic.

A "frogbot" developed by researchers at Tufts University.

There are three basic steps to the frogbot process. First, stem cells that will develop into frog skin and frog heart are grown in a dish. (The proto-heart cells produce rhythmic contractions, which is how the finished frogbots move around.) Second, a computer runs an algorithm that simulates thousands and thousands of different frogbot designs in a virtual environment to see which ones are capable of whatever action you want them to perform. Finally, the designs that are likely to work are physically produced from clusters of stem cells using microsurgery, then let loose in another dish to see what they actually do. So far, they do pretty much whatever we want them to do, within reason.

This is very cool. Even though frogbots are tiny and stupid at the moment, they impress me way more than the conga line of faildroids weve managed to cobble together so far. Of course it makes sense to use materials from existing animals; weve been doing this using selective breeding techniques since the dawn of time. What are pigs or cows or sheep but frogbots built over thousands of years? The key innovation here is modelling selective evolution quickly, instead of standing around like idiots for millenia, waiting for hundreds of generations of dogs to fuck.

It makes perfect sense. Why try to reinvent the wheel when you could simply hijack biological processes that already exist? This is a classically human way of solving a problem, cleverer and yet also lazier than the futile pursuit of purely artificial robotics. A big congratulations to the scientists who figured this out, using only keen wit, a positive attitude, and a gigantic pile of money from the U.S. military research agency.

Yes, naturally this exciting new field of science is being used to develop weapons of war. This, not simply the prospect of new intelligences, is the upsetting thing about groundbreaking developments in robotics and AI. Will frogbots be a military invention that simply slides into everyday life, like the internet, canned food, and microwaves? Or will they be used to administer dangerous MKULTRA hallucinogens to innocent populations America decides are in its way? In a world controlled by a small and powerful elite that can essentially do whatever it wants, were forced to be suspicious of new technologies. Will the frogbot become bigger, smarter, and stronger? Yes, probably. Will it be my comrade? Thats another question entirely.

Eleanor Robertson is a writer and editor from Sydney, Australia.

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Robots don't have to be so embarrassing - The Outline

Stem Cell Assay Market Insights: Growth Factors, Market Drivers, Segmentations, Key Players, Analysis & Forecast by 2025 – The Trusted Chronicle

The undifferentiated biological cells that can differentiate into specialized cells are called as stem cells. In the human body during early life and growth phase, stem cells have the potential to develop into other different cell types. Stem cells can differ from other types of cells in the body.

There are two types of stem cells namely the embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells. Adult stem cells comprise of hematopoietic, mammary, intestinal, neural, mesenchymal stem cells, etc. All stem cells have general properties such as capability to divide and renew themselves for long period. Stem cells are unspecialized and can form specialized cell types. The quantitative or qualitative evaluation of a stem cells for various characteristics can be done by a technique called as stem cell assay. The identification and properties of stem cells can be illustrated by using Stem Cell Assay.

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The new developments in the field of stem cell assay research related to the claim of stem cell plasticity have caused controversies related to technical issues. In the study of stem cell assay, most conflicting results arise when cells express stem cell characteristics in one assay but not in another. The most important factor is that the true potential of stem cells can only be assessed retrospectively. The retrospective approach refers to back drop analysis which provides quantitative or qualitative evaluation of stem cells.

The development in embryonic & adult stem cells assay will be beneficial to the global stem cell assay market. Stem cell assays find applications in pharmaceutical & biotechnology companies, academic & research institutes, government healthcare institutions, contract research organizations (CROs) and others. The influential factors like chronic diseases, increased investment in research related activities, and technological advancements in pharmaceutical & biotech industry is anticipated to drive the growth of the global stem cell assay market during the forecast period. The cost of stem cell based therapies could be one of the major limiting factor for the growth of the global stem cell assay market.

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Theglobal stem cell assay markethas been segmented on the basis of kit type, application, end user and region. The global stem cell assay market can be differentiated on the basis of kit type into human embryonic stem cell kits and adult stem cell kits. The adult stem cell kit includes hematopoietic stem cell kits, mesenchymal stem cell kits, induced pluripotent stem cell kits (IPSCs), and neuronal stem cell kits. The adult stem cell kits are projected to witness the highest CAGR during the forecast period due to the ease of use, cost & effectiveness of this type of kit in stem cell analysis.

Based on application global stem cell assay market is based on drug discovery and development, therapeutics and clinical research. The therapeutics segment includes oncology, dermatology, cardiovascular treatment, orthopedic & musculoskeletal spine treatment, central nervous system, diabetes and others.

Depending on geographic segmentation, the global stem cell assay market is segmented into five key regions: Asia Pacific, North America, Europe, Latin America, and Middle East & Africa. North America is expected to contribute significant share to the global stem cell assay market. The stem cell assay market in Europe, has gained impetus from the government & industrial initiatives for stem cell based research and the market in Europe is expected to grow at a remarkable pace during the forecast period.

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Market Players

The major players in the global stem cell assay market include :

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Stem Cell Assay Market Insights: Growth Factors, Market Drivers, Segmentations, Key Players, Analysis & Forecast by 2025 - The Trusted Chronicle

Inverness friends’ donations offer the gift of life – Inverness Courier

Scott Birnie and Kai Stewart.

Two Inverness teenagers have both been found to be matches for blood cancer patients in need of stem cell donations.

Scott Birnie has been told that out of 1.6 million would-be donors, he is a potential match for someone in need.

And the welcome news comes a little more than a year after his friend Kai Stewart received a similar call from the Anthony Nolan Trust.

Both former Culloden Academy pupils joined the register after learning about it during a talk at school.

The Anthony Nolan Trust has been Scottish Fire and Rescues nominated charity for several years and as part of the link-up, firefighters tour schools to spread awareness of the register.

Mr Birnie, who is now studying sports coaching at Inverness College UHI, will travel to London next month for a four-hour procedure known as peripheral blood stem cell collection, which involves taking blood from his arm.

A machine extracts the stem cells before the blood is returned through his other arm.

He said: I dont like needles but I will overcome my fear to do this. I am actually quite excited about it its a good thing to do.

The 18-year-old, of Hazel Avenue, is unaware of the recipients identity and will only find out who they are if he or she gives permission.

Mr Stewart, also 18, who is studying electrical engineering at Edinburgh Napier University, underwent the same procedure in November 2018.

He said: A few friends and I thought it would be a good idea to help, so we got involved and managed to recruit 42 people for the register.

He subsequently turned out to be a close match for someone and travelled to Kings College Hospital in London to make his donation. Mr Stewart added: Once I was hooked up to the machine, it was a five-hour wait for the donation to finish, so I even had a quick nap during the process and the rest of the time just chatted to my mum.

He donated eight million stem cells and later received a letter to say the patient an adult male was doing well.

It felt a very worthwhile and fulfilling experience, he said. I hope Scotts case goes as well as mine did.

People on the Anthony Nolan Trust register have a one-in-800 chance of being asked to donate, while young men aged 16 to 30 have a one-in-200 chance.

However, the charity acknowledged it was very unusual for close friends to be selected as donors.

Amy Bartlett, the trusts regional register development manager for Scotland, said: Its fantastic that Scott will be following in Kais footsteps, travelling to London next month to donate his stem cells to someone in desperate need of a transplant. Donating stem cells is an entirely selfless act that will give someone with blood cancer a second chance of life.

Anyone interested in joining the register should go to anthonynolan.org/donor-application/begin or call 0303 3030303.

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Inverness friends' donations offer the gift of life - Inverness Courier

What we learn from a fish that can change sex in just 10 days – The Conversation AU

The bluehead wrasse is a fish that lives in small social groups in coral reefs in the Caribbean. Only the male has a blue head signalling his social dominance over a harem of yellow-striped females.

If this male is removed from the group, something extraordinary happens: the largest female in the group changes sex to become male. Her behaviour changes within minutes. Within ten days, her ovaries transform into sperm-producing testes. Within 21 days she appears completely male.

But how does the wrasse change sex, and why did evolution select this system?

Also, given that fish share sex-determining genes with mammals, would an understanding of this provide new insight into how sex works in humans and other animals?

The trigger for sex change in the bluehead wrasse and some other species is social. When the male fish is removed, the largest female immediately senses his absence and adopts full male breeding behaviours the same day.

How this social cue translates into molecular action remains a bit of a mystery, but it probably involves stress. High levels of the stress hormone cortisol are associated with temperature-based sex determination in other fish and reptiles. Cortisol probably alters reproductive function by impacting sex hormone levels.

Stress could be the unifying mechanism that channels environmental information into a change in sex.

Our research traced changes in the activity of all 20,000-odd bluehead wrasse genes during the female to male transformation.

Read more: Sex lives of reptiles could leave them vulnerable to climate change

Unsurprisingly, we found the gene that produces the female hormone (estrogen) rapidly shuts off, and genes responsible for making male hormones (androgens) are turned on.

Hundreds of other genes required for being female (including genes that make egg components) also progressively shut down, while genes required for maleness (including genes that make sperm components) turn on.

We also noticed changes in the activity of developmentally important genes whose roles in sex determination remain unknown. This included genes known to epigenetically regulate the activity of other genes.

Epigenetics refers to regulation above the gene. For example, there are many fish and reptile species in which the sex of developing embryos is determined by environmental cues, such as the temperature at which eggs are incubated. The sex is not determined by different genes, but by the environment impacting the activity of these genes.

Similar mechanisms regulate adult sex change in fish, so this may be important in translating the social cue into molecular action.

Surprisingly, we saw the turn-on of some powerful genes that are active in embryos and stem cells. These genes keep cells in a neutral embryo-like state, from which they can mature (differentiate) into any tissue type. They can also revert differentiated cells to an embryo-like state.

This suggests that transitioning from ovaries to testes in wrasse involves reversing the cell differentiation process something scientists have argued about for decades.

Researchers have identified more than 500 fish species that regularly change sex as adults.

Clown fish begin life as males, then change into females, and kobudai do the opposite. Some species, including gobies, can change sex back and forth. The transformation may be triggered by age, size, or social status.

Read more: Climate change can tip the gender balance, but fish can tip it back

Sex change is an advantage when an individuals reproductive value is greater as one sex when it is small, and greater as the other sex when it grows bigger.

If females benefit more than males from being larger (because they can lay more eggs), male-to-female sex change is most advantageous. But if (as for wrasse) males gain more from being large, because they can better defend their breeding territories and mate with many females, female-to-male sex change is optimal.

Sex change might also advantage a population recovering from overfishing, which often targets larger fish and leaves the population deficient in one sex. Thus, a mechanism for replacing the missing sex would be an advantage.

Male and female wrasse differ in size, colour, behaviour, but especially in their reproductive organs the ovary and testes.

Sex change in the wrasse involves complete remodelling of the gonad from an ovary producing eggs to a testis producing sperm.

This differs from other fish that routinely change sex when they get big enough. Their gonads contain both male and female tissues, and sex change occurs when one outgrows the other. So, fish employ all sorts of strategies to get the most out of sex.

In contrast, humans and other mammals determine sex via a gene on the male-only Y chromosome. This gene triggers the formation of testes in the embryo, which unleash male hormones and direct male development of the baby.

Read more: What makes you a man or a woman? Geneticist Jenny Graves explains

The human sex system is nowhere near as flexible as that of fish or reptiles. There is no evidence any environmental factors influence the sex determination of mammalian embryos, let alone cause sex change in adults.

That said, humans share with all vertebrates (including fish) about 30 genes that control ovary or testis differentiation. Mutation in any of these genes can tilt development toward male or female, resulting in atypical sexual development, but never sex change.

Perhaps an understanding of epigenetic changes in fish sex can offer us valuable insight, as we wrestle with new ideas about human sex and gender.

More:
What we learn from a fish that can change sex in just 10 days - The Conversation AU

Stem cells: Sources, types, and uses

Cells in the body have specific purposes, but stem cells are cells that do not yet have a specific role and can become almost any cell that is required.

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can turn into specific cells, as the body needs them.

Scientists and doctors are interested in stem cells as they help to explain how some functions of the body work, and how they sometimes go wrong.

Stem cells also show promise for treating some diseases that currently have no cure.

Stem cells originate from two main sources: adult body tissues and embryos. Scientists are also working on ways to develop stem cells from other cells, using genetic "reprogramming" techniques.

A person's body contains stem cells throughout their life. The body can use these stem cells whenever it needs them.

Also called tissue-specific or somatic stem cells, adult stem cells exist throughout the body from the time an embryo develops.

The cells are in a non-specific state, but they are more specialized than embryonic stem cells. They remain in this state until the body needs them for a specific purpose, say, as skin or muscle cells.

Day-to-day living means the body is constantly renewing its tissues. In some parts of the body, such as the gut and bone marrow, stem cells regularly divide to produce new body tissues for maintenance and repair.

Stem cells are present inside different types of tissue. Scientists have found stem cells in tissues, including:

However, stem cells can be difficult to find. They can stay non-dividing and non-specific for years until the body summons them to repair or grow new tissue.

Adult stem cells can divide or self-renew indefinitely. This means they can generate various cell types from the originating organ or even regenerate the original organ, entirely.

This division and regeneration are how a skin wound heals, or how an organ such as the liver, for example, can repair itself after damage.

In the past, scientists believed adult stem cells could only differentiate based on their tissue of origin. However, some evidence now suggests that they can differentiate to become other cell types, as well.

From the very earliest stage of pregnancy, after the sperm fertilizes the egg, an embryo forms.

Around 35 days after a sperm fertilizes an egg, the embryo takes the form of a blastocyst or ball of cells.

The blastocyst contains stem cells and will later implant in the womb. Embryonic stem cells come from a blastocyst that is 45 days old.

When scientists take stem cells from embryos, these are usually extra embryos that result from in vitro fertilization (IVF).

In IVF clinics, the doctors fertilize several eggs in a test tube, to ensure that at least one survives. They will then implant a limited number of eggs to start a pregnancy.

When a sperm fertilizes an egg, these cells combine to form a single cell called a zygote.

This single-celled zygote then starts to divide, forming 2, 4, 8, 16 cells, and so on. Now it is an embryo.

Soon, and before the embryo implants in the uterus, this mass of around 150200 cells is the blastocyst. The blastocyst consists of two parts:

The inner cell mass is where embryonic stem cells are found. Scientists call these totipotent cells. The term totipotent refer to the fact that they have total potential to develop into any cell in the body.

With the right stimulation, the cells can become blood cells, skin cells, and all the other cell types that a body needs.

In early pregnancy, the blastocyst stage continues for about 5 days before the embryo implants in the uterus, or womb. At this stage, stem cells begin to differentiate.

Embryonic stem cells can differentiate into more cell types than adult stem cells.

MSCs come from the connective tissue or stroma that surrounds the body's organs and other tissues.

Scientists have used MSCs to create new body tissues, such as bone, cartilage, and fat cells. They may one day play a role in solving a wide range of health problems.

Scientists create these in a lab, using skin cells and other tissue-specific cells. These cells behave in a similar way to embryonic stem cells, so they could be useful for developing a range of therapies.

However, more research and development is necessary.

To grow stem cells, scientists first extract samples from adult tissue or an embryo. They then place these cells in a controlled culture where they will divide and reproduce but not specialize further.

Stem cells that are dividing and reproducing in a controlled culture are called a stem-cell line.

Researchers manage and share stem-cell lines for different purposes. They can stimulate the stem cells to specialize in a particular way. This process is known as directed differentiation.

Until now, it has been easier to grow large numbers of embryonic stem cells than adult stem cells. However, scientists are making progress with both cell types.

Researchers categorize stem cells, according to their potential to differentiate into other types of cells.

Embryonic stem cells are the most potent, as their job is to become every type of cell in the body.

The full classification includes:

Totipotent: These stem cells can differentiate into all possible cell types. The first few cells that appear as the zygote starts to divide are totipotent.

Pluripotent: These cells can turn into almost any cell. Cells from the early embryo are pluripotent.

Multipotent: These cells can differentiate into a closely related family of cells. Adult hematopoietic stem cells, for example, can become red and white blood cells or platelets.

Oligopotent: These can differentiate into a few different cell types. Adult lymphoid or myeloid stem cells can do this.

Unipotent: These can only produce cells of one kind, which is their own type. However, they are still stem cells because they can renew themselves. Examples include adult muscle stem cells.

Embryonic stem cells are considered pluripotent instead of totipotent because they cannot become part of the extra-embryonic membranes or the placenta.

Stem cells themselves do not serve any single purpose but are important for several reasons.

First, with the right stimulation, many stem cells can take on the role of any type of cell, and they can regenerate damaged tissue, under the right conditions.

This potential could save lives or repair wounds and tissue damage in people after an illness or injury. Scientists see many possible uses for stem cells.

Tissue regeneration is probably the most important use of stem cells.

Until now, a person who needed a new kidney, for example, had to wait for a donor and then undergo a transplant.

There is a shortage of donor organs but, by instructing stem cells to differentiate in a certain way, scientists could use them to grow a specific tissue type or organ.

As an example, doctors have already used stem cells from just beneath the skin's surface to make new skin tissue. They can then repair a severe burn or another injury by grafting this tissue onto the damaged skin, and new skin will grow back.

In 2013, a team of researchers from Massachusetts General Hospital reported in PNAS Early Edition that they had created blood vessels in laboratory mice, using human stem cells.

Within 2 weeks of implanting the stem cells, networks of blood-perfused vessels had formed. The quality of these new blood vessels was as good as the nearby natural ones.

The authors hoped that this type of technique could eventually help to treat people with cardiovascular and vascular diseases.

Doctors may one day be able to use replacement cells and tissues to treat brain diseases, such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.

In Parkinson's, for example, damage to brain cells leads to uncontrolled muscle movements. Scientists could use stem cells to replenish the damaged brain tissue. This could bring back the specialized brain cells that stop the uncontrolled muscle movements.

Researchers have already tried differentiating embryonic stem cells into these types of cells, so treatments are promising.

Scientists hope one day to be able to develop healthy heart cells in a laboratory that they can transplant into people with heart disease.

These new cells could repair heart damage by repopulating the heart with healthy tissue.

Similarly, people with type I diabetes could receive pancreatic cells to replace the insulin-producing cells that their own immune systems have lost or destroyed.

The only current therapy is a pancreatic transplant, and very few pancreases are available for transplant.

Doctors now routinely use adult hematopoietic stem cells to treat diseases, such as leukemia, sickle cell anemia, and other immunodeficiency problems.

Hematopoietic stem cells occur in blood and bone marrow and can produce all blood cell types, including red blood cells that carry oxygen and white blood cells that fight disease.

People can donate stem cells to help a loved one, or possibly for their own use in the future.

Donations can come from the following sources:

Bone marrow: These cells are taken under a general anesthetic, usually from the hip or pelvic bone. Technicians then isolate the stem cells from the bone marrow for storage or donation.

Peripheral stem cells: A person receives several injections that cause their bone marrow to release stem cells into the blood. Next, blood is removed from the body, a machine separates out the stem cells, and doctors return the blood to the body.

Umbilical cord blood: Stem cells can be harvested from the umbilical cord after delivery, with no harm to the baby. Some people donate the cord blood, and others store it.

This harvesting of stem cells can be expensive, but the advantages for future needs include:

Stem cells are useful not only as potential therapies but also for research purposes.

For example, scientists have found that switching a particular gene on or off can cause it to differentiate. Knowing this is helping them to investigate which genes and mutations cause which effects.

Armed with this knowledge, they may be able to discover what causes a wide range of illnesses and conditions, some of which do not yet have a cure.

Abnormal cell division and differentiation are responsible for conditions that include cancer and congenital disabilities that stem from birth. Knowing what causes the cells to divide in the wrong way could lead to a cure.

Stem cells can also help in the development of new drugs. Instead of testing drugs on human volunteers, scientists can assess how a drug affects normal, healthy tissue by testing it on tissue grown from stem cells.

Watch the video to find out more about stem cells.

There has been some controversy about stem cell research. This mainly relates to work on embryonic stem cells.

The argument against using embryonic stem cells is that it destroys a human blastocyst, and the fertilized egg cannot develop into a person.

Nowadays, researchers are looking for ways to create or use stem cells that do not involve embryos.

Stem cell research often involves inserting human cells into animals, such as mice or rats. Some people argue that this could create an organism that is part human.

In some countries, it is illegal to produce embryonic stem cell lines. In the United States, scientists can create or work with embryonic stem cell lines, but it is illegal to use federal funds to research stem cell lines that were created after August 2001.

Some people are already offering "stem-cells therapies" for a range of purposes, such as anti-aging treatments.

However, most of these uses do not have approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Some of them may be illegal, and some can be dangerous.

Anyone who is considering stem-cell treatment should check with the provider or with the FDA that the product has approval, and that it was made in a way that meets with FDA standards for safety and effectiveness.

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Stem cells: Sources, types, and uses

If you want to ban fetal tissue research, sign a pledge to refuse its benefits – The Coloradoan

Irving Weissman and Joseph McCune, Opinion contributors Published 5:00 a.m. MT Jan. 24, 2020

Severe Trump administration restrictions mean millions of Americans of all political and religious stripes won't benefit from fetal tissue research.

Last summer the Trump administration curtailed federal funding of medical research using human fetal tissue; the new rulestook effect Oct. 1. More recently, the administration addedrestrictions that are even more severe.

Immediately, important work at two NIH-supported labs in Montana and California that are fighting the AIDS epidemic stopped because they were testing new medications against HIV using mice with human immune systems derived from human fetal tissue. In the near term, all National Institutes of Health (NIH) funding of research using fetal tissuewill likely cease.

More than 30years ago, we invented SCID-hu mice for biomedical research on diseases affecting humans, by implanting human fetal blood-forming and immune system tissuesinto mice whose immune systems had been silenced. The implanted immune tissues came from an aborted fetus, and allowed our otherwise immune-deficient mice to exist and be vulnerable to viruses that infect humans.

Tissues from living infants would not have worked;they are too far along in development and nearly impossible to obtain. This mouse model (and later versions of it) became the only living system, outside of a human, in which advanced therapies for diseases like AIDS and other viral infections could be evaluated before they were given to people.

Our work with human fetal tissue proceeded with the highest level of caution and vigilance. We received advice from bioethicists, clergyand government officials, which led to the establishment of strict guidelines that are still used today. No woman was asked or paid to terminate a pregnancy, the termination process was unaltered, and the women were asked for donation of the organs only after they had decided to terminate the pregnancy. Thus, obtaining the fetal tissue for medical research had no impact on ending pregnancies.

Since then, mice with transplanted human fetal tissues have been successfully used by scientists to identify blood stem cells and to devise treatments now availableor in clinical trialsfor cancer, various viral infections, Alzheimers disease, spinal cord injuries, and other diseases of the nervous system. Such diseases kill or cripple many Americans including pregnant women, fetusesand newborn infants. Many of them have only a short window of opportunity wherein a new therapy can treat them, and a delay can be fatal.

National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland, on Oct. 21, 2013.(Photo: *, Kyodo)

The Trump administration's new rules are tantamount to a funding ban. In academic labs, the experiments are done by students and fellows in training, and the new rules block any NIH-funded students or fellows from working with human fetal tissue. Those who imposed the banmust bear responsibility for the consequences: People will suffer and die for lack of adequate treatments.

Americans pay the price:Trump administration's 'scientific oppression' threatens US safety and innovation

At a December 2018 meeting at NIH,after hearing scientific evidence about alternative research methods such as the use of adult cells, experts concluded that the use of fetal tissue is uniquely valuable. Nonetheless, the administration severely restricted the use of fetal tissue, thereby denying millions of Americans the fruits of such research Americans of all political stripes, since deadly viruses and cancers do not care who you vote for.

These restrictions subvert the NIH mission, which is to advance medicine and protect the nations health. To the extent that it was motivated by the religious beliefs of those in charge, it bluntly transgresses the American principle of separation of church and state. As a result, both believers and non-believers will die.

Of course, all who take the Hippocratic Oathto "do no harm,"which includes all medical doctors, will always offer and deliver all types of therapies that are available.

Restricting science: Trump EPA's cynical 'transparency' ploy would set back pollution science and public health

However, we believe that thoseresponsible forthis de facto ban, and perhapsthose who agree with them, should personally accept its consequences. We challenge them tobe true to their beliefs. They should pledge to never accept any cancer therapy, any AIDS medication, any cardiac drug, any lung disease treatment, any Alzheimers therapy, or any other medical advance that was developed using fetal tissue including our mice. Its a long list, one that you can learn about from us here. Should this apply to you, be faithful and be bold: Take the pledge.

Irving Weissman is a Professor of Pathology and Developmental Biology and the Director of the Stanford Institute of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine and Ludwig Center for Cancer Stem Cell at Stanford University School of Medicine. Joseph McCune is Professor Emeritus of Medicine from the Division of Experimental Medicine at the University of California, San Francisco. The views expressed here are solely their own.

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If you want to ban fetal tissue research, sign a pledge to refuse its benefits - The Coloradoan

Tiny organs grown from snake glands produce real venom – Science Magazine

Researchers grew tiny venom glands from nine different snake species, including the cape coral cobra.

By Erin MalsburyJan. 23, 2020 , 11:00 AM

Venomous snakes kill or permanently injure more than a half-million people every year. Yet researchers still know surprisingly little about the biology behind venom, complicating efforts to develop treatments. A new advance could help: Researchers have successfully grown miniature organs from snake stem cells in the lab that function just like snake venom glands; they even produce real venom.

Its a breakthrough, says Jos Mara Gutirrez, a snake venom toxicologist at the University of Costa Rica, San Jos, who was not involved in the study. This work opens the possibilities for studying the cellular biology of venom-secreting cells at a very fine level, which has not been possible in the past. The advance could also help researchers study the venom of rare snakes that are difficult to keep in captivity, he says, paving the way for new treatments for a variety of venoms.

Researchers have been creating miniorgansor organoidsfrom adult human and mouse stem cells for years. These so-called pluripotent cells are able to divide and grow into new types of tissues throughout the body; scientists have coaxed them into tiny livers, guts, and even rudimentary brains. But scientists hadnt tried the technique with reptile cells before.

Nobody knew anything about stem cells in snakes, says Hans Clevers, a molecular biologist at the Hubrecht Institute and one of the worlds leading organoid scientists. We didnt know if it was possible at all. To find out, Clevers and colleagues removed stem cells from the venom glands of nine snake speciesincluding the cape coral cobra and the western diamondback rattlesnakeand placed them in a cocktail of hormones and proteins called growth factors.

To the teams surprise, the snake stem cells responded to the same growth factors that work on human and mouse cells. This suggests certain aspects of these stem cells originated hundreds of millions of years ago in a shared ancestor of mammals and reptiles.

Miniature, lab-grown snakevenom glands

By the end of 1 week submerged in the cocktail, the snake cells had grown into little clumps of tissue, a half-millimeter across and visible to the human eye. When the scientists removed the growth factors, the cells began to morph into the epithelial cells that produce venom in the glands of snakes.The miniorgans expressed similar genes as those in real venom glands, the team reports today inCell.

The snake organoids even produced venom; a chemical and genetic analysis of the secretions revealed that they match the venom made by the real snakes. The labmade venom is dangerous as well: It disrupted the function of mouse muscle cells and rat neurons in a similar way to real venom.

Scientists didnt know whether the many toxins found in snake venom are made by one general type of cell or specialized, toxin-specific cells. By sequencing RNA in individual cells and examining gene expression, Cleverss team determined that both real venom glands and organoids contain different cell types that specialize in producing certain toxins. Organoids grown using stem cells from separate regions of the venom gland also produce toxins in different proportions, indicating that location within the organ matters.

The proportions and types of toxins in venom differ amongand even withinspecies. That can be problematic for antivenom production, says study author Yorick Post, a molecular biologist at the Hubrecht Institute. Most antivenoms are developed using one type of venom, so they only work against one type of snakebite.

Now that Clevers and his colleagues created a way to study the complexity of venom and venom glands without handling live, dangerous snakes, they plan to compile a biobank of frozen organoids from venomous reptiles around the world that could help researchers find broader treatments. This would make it much easier to create antibodies, Clevers says. The biobank could also be a rich resource for identifying new drugs, he adds. (Scientists think snake venom may hold the keyfor treatments against pain, high blood pressure, and cancer, for instance.)

Another new study, published earlier this month inNature, could also help. Researchers have assembled anear-complete genome for the Indian cobrathat could aid drug development. The organoids created by Cleverss team will provide an unprecedented and incredibly important new avenue to complement genomic information for venomous snakes, says the senior author of the cobra study, molecular biologist Somasekar Seshagiri of the SciGenom Research Foundation. Theyve done an amazing job making this work.

*Correction, 23 January, 1:35 p.m.: An earlier version of this story misspelledSomasekar Seshagiri's name.

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Tiny organs grown from snake glands produce real venom - Science Magazine